Between Sin and Celibacy: Sexual Challenges of the Medieval Era

It’s often assumed that the history of sex is straightforward. For centuries, Western societies grappled with sexual repression, driven by fear of sin and a lack of understanding about their own bodies. Those who deviated from strict norms faced excommunication, state punishment, social ostracism, and public humiliation. However, the mid-20th century brought a shift. The reality, though, is far more intriguing. Many stereotypes and prejudices about sex in the medieval period stemmed from medical ignorance. While religion significantly influenced societal attitudes toward sex, the interplay between Christian beliefs and medieval medical theories created complex ideas about sex and sexual practices long before the sexual revolution.

The Perils of Promiscuity

The case of Arnaud de Verniolles, a French cleric, illustrates the intricacies of medieval sexuality. In the early 14th century, Arnaud, then a student, had sex with a prostitute. Years later, he confessed to the Inquisition:

After committing this sin, my face began to swell. I was terrified and thought I had contracted leprosy. I vowed never to sleep with a woman again.

Arnaud’s story was not unique. Many medieval individuals attributed unusual symptoms to sexual sin after visiting brothels. This tendency to associate disease with sexual sin was not solely based on moral judgments but also had a strong medical context.

Concerns about sexually transmitted infections were sometimes addressed rationally. Local authorities occasionally took preventive measures, such as the expulsion of women with the “burning disease”—likely gonorrhea—from Southwark in the 15th century.

The Female Womb: An Incubator of Disease

Medical instructions suggested that a woman might remain unharmed, but her next lover would contract the disease. The coldness of a woman’s face indicated that the leper’s semen remained in her womb, turning into putrid vapor. When a healthy man’s penis came into contact with this vapor, the heat of his body absorbed the disease through open pores, leading to genital manifestations and eventual spread throughout the body.

Fortunately, Arnaud and others could take protective measures. English physician John of Gaddesden recommended several steps for a man after intercourse with a potentially leprous woman: immediately clean the penis with urine or vinegar, undergo bloodletting, and follow a three-month regimen of ointments and medicines.

However, the best protection was abstinence.

The Dangers of Celibacy

Medieval physicians also considered excessive sex a genuine medical issue, believing several nobles suffered from it. In the 14th century, John of Gaunt, the first Duke of Lancaster, allegedly died from genital rot caused by frequent sexual activity. Today, his symptoms would suggest a venereal disease, but then it was attributed to his licentiousness.

The medieval understanding of the body was based on the four humors: blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. Health was a balance of these humors, and disease resulted from their imbalance. Regular sexual activity was part of a healthy life for men, but moderation was key. Too much sex could deplete the body, leading to fatal consequences.

Retaining excess semen could affect the heart and other body parts, so early marriage was recommended. King Louis VIII of France, remaining faithful to his wife during a 20-year crusade, was believed to have died from celibacy. For most crusaders, celibacy was a temporary inconvenience until they returned home. For priests, it was a lifelong vow, and bishops often died from refusing to share a bed with a woman.

Those practicing long-term abstinence were advised to engage in frequent physical exercise, visit baths to induce sweating, and undergo leech therapy to remove “excess” blood. A special diet was also recommended, avoiding hot foods and wine, which were believed to heat the genitals and stimulate sexual desire.

Sanctioned Masturbation for Women

While history primarily documents male celibacy, women were also vulnerable. According to medieval medical theory, both sexes produced seeds necessary for conception. Like semen, female seed needed regular release during sexual activity. Without sexual activity, the seed remained in the body, causing suffocation of the womb, with symptoms including fainting and breathlessness, sometimes leading to death.

The best way to avoid death was to marry and have regular, church-sanctioned intercourse with a spouse. Some physicians, however, recommended a surprising alternative—masturbation.

The medieval church had a ambiguous view on this practice: generally considered a sin with heavy penances, but sometimes allowed if there was no other option. Some medical textbooks even advised that if a woman fainted, a midwife should insert an oiled finger into her womb and move it vigorously.

Infectious diseases were not the only problem. Arnaud vowed never to sleep with another woman but did not renounce sex. Instead, he began abusing young boys.

People were in a constant dilemma: how to maintain balance without exposing themselves to disease or sin? Thus, sex in the 20th century, as now, was both a pleasure and a problem.